Golfers Elbow

How to Write a Research Proposal

Paul T. P. Wong, Ph.D., C.Psych.  

Research Director, Graduate Program in Counselling Psychology
Trinity Western University
Langley, BC, Canada

Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal means, nor do they understand its importance. To put it bluntly, one's research is only as a good as one's proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets through the Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises success for the project, but also impresses your Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher.

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.

This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas.

Title:

It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal.

Abstract:

It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.

Introduction:

The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.

If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.

Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem areas.

However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its significance.

The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:

1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance.
3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.
6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

Literature Review:

Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.

The literature review serves several important functions:

1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

Most students' literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

• Lacking organization and structure
• Lacking focus, unity and coherence
• Being repetitive and verbose
• Failing to cite influential papers
• Failing to keep up with recent developments
• Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
• Citing irrelevant or trivial references
• Depending too much on secondary sources

Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.

There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.

It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)

Methods:

The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project.

The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study.

You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your research question.

Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method.

Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data. (How to write the Method section for qualitative research is a topic for another paper.)

For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:

1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose?
2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use?
3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take?

Results:

Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.

Discussion:

It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research area.

Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3. Failure to cite landmark studies.
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
8. Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
10. Too long or too short.
11. Failing to follow the APA style.
12. Slopping writing.

Source:
 

Alternative Treatments for Knee Pain

 

You might be tempted to try just about anything to relieve the pain and stiffness from your arthritic knees. And while your doctor will likely support other treatments before recommending a knee replacement, not all therapies are proven effective, and the hype on some seems too good to be true. So what's the best approach? "Arm yourself with information," says Dr. Eric Berkson, director of the Sports Performance Center at Harvard-affiliated Massachusetts General Hospital.

Doctors first recommend cortisone shots and pain relievers such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen. But physical therapy and weight loss are the most effective, says Dr. Berkson. "Strengthening all of your muscles will mean you have less force on your knee during an activity. It's been shown to have an excellent effect on knee pain and future pain, and may be one of the best things for it. Losing weight makes a significant difference, too, since the force you place on your knee can be up to six times your body weight. So losing five pounds can result in taking off 30 pounds of pressure with every step." He recommends finding a physical therapist who's experienced in your particular diagnosis and won't overwork your knee.

Supplements

The most popular supplements for arthritis knee pain are chondroitin and glucosamine. Both substances are found naturally in the body. Chondroitin sulfate helps to keep cartilage from deteriorating. Glucosamine stimulates cartilage formation and repair. But do they work in supplement form derived from animals?

 "There's a lot of evidence that they work, but only in a certain percentage of patients," says Dr. Berkson. "I recommend them because there's little downside to trying the supplements." The bigger risk is that the supplements aren't tested by the FDA, so you can't be sure you're getting what you pay for. Dr. Berkson suggests asking your pharmacist for a good recommendation. He also says the supplements take about four weeks to be effective.

Viscosupplementation

Viscosupplementation injects hyaluronic acid into the knee. It's a naturally occurring substance in joint fluid that lubricates bones so they can move smoothly over each other. Scientists still don't agree how this medicine actually works. Even more concerning is the fact that studies don't agree about whether viscosupplementation even works at all. In fact, a recent study in theAnnals of Internal Medicine found hyaluronic acid is ineffective and may cause infection. 

Dr. Berkson notes, "Despite the lack of agreement, I have some patients who think it's a miracle drug that keeps their symptoms at bay. Given that the risks of an injection are very low, it makes sense to try it if insurance will pay." The treatment is usually covered by insurance, but otherwise it's pricey. "About $1500," says Dr. Berkson.

Platelet rich plasma

In platelet rich plasma (PRP), doctors extract platelets from your own blood, then inject increased concentrations of the cells into your knee. "The platelets contain hundreds of proteins called growth factors which can stimulate and speed up the healing response in your body," explains Dr. Berkson.

 "There's increasing evidence that PRP might work, but it may not. I do offer it in my practice, but it really is a last resort. It's not covered by insurance and it's expensive." PRP is also used to treat tendon, muscle and ligament injuries, but there's no definitive proof it's effective yet.

Prolotherapy

Prolotherapy also calls on the body's own healing process. Doctors inject an irritant such as glucose into the knee, which may stimulate the body to call healing cells to the site. It's usually combined with massage and exercise. "I don't see there's evidence that shows it works," says Dr. Berkson, "it may not work and it has a risk of infection. I think it's a consideration if everything else has failed, but I don't promote it."

Acupuncture

The ancient Chinese art of acupuncture focuses on points along your body where large amounts of nerve endings intersect. These points are then manipulated using painless hair-thin needles.

"Acupuncture works in some patients, although I don't think science knows exactly why it works," says Dr. Berkson. "It's worth trying if other things aren't working for you."

Make sure your acupuncturist is certified by the National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine (NCCAOM). You can also find medical doctors who are certified through the American Academy of Medical Acupuncture.

Last Review Date: Nov 1, 2012

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